Best Combination Birth Control for Continuous
Aust Prescr. 2015 Feb; 38(1): 6–11.
Choosing a combined oral contraceptive pill
Mary Stewart
1Research and Education, Family Planning NSW
Kirsten Black
2Discipline of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Neonatology, University of Sydney
- Supplementary Materials
-
This article has a Continuing Professional Development activity for pharmacists.
GUID: 5BC2690B-ED6A-4A83-BC76-5B6063E7602D
Summary
The combined oral contraceptive pill is an effective contraceptive method which can also offer other benefits. However, other contraceptive options should be discussed. If the pill is the chosen method, prescribe a pill with the lowest effective dose of oestrogen and progestogen.
Pills containing levonorgestrel or norethisterone in combination with ethinyloestradiol 35 microgram or less are considered first-line. They are effective if taken correctly, have a relatively low risk of venous thromboembolism, and are listed on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme.
The pill is usually taken in a monthly cycle. Some women may prefer an extended pill regimen with fewer or no inactive pills.
Key words: combined oral contraceptives, oestrogens, progestogens, venous thromboembolism
Introduction
The combined oral contraceptive pill contains oestrogen and progestogen. It was introduced into Australia just over 50 years ago. Australia was the second country in the world to have access to 'the pill'. Women rapidly adopted the pill as it allowed the reliable separation of sex and reproduction and gave them the opportunity to plan when to have children. Since then the pill has been further developed to ensure good efficacy while minimising the adverse effects.
A key advance was a decrease in the dose of oestrogen to the currently used low-dose formulation (standard dose of ≤35 microgram ethinyloestradiol).1 Subsequently it has been found that formulations with ethinyloestradiol 20 microgram are likely to be as effective as the 30–35 microgram pills while possibly reducing the oestrogenic effects such as nausea, bloating and breast tenderness.2 However, there may be an increase in unscheduled bleeding.3 More recent developments, which may improve the safety and efficacy of the combined oral contraceptive pill, include using oestradiol instead of ethinyloestradiol and extended pill regimens with fewer or no inactive pills.4 - 6
The pill today
The pill is the most commonly used contraceptive method and approximately 50–80% of Australian women use it at some stage during their reproductive lives.7 There is now a large range of products available with over 30 different registered brands. While many of these pills contain similar hormones and doses, there are multiple formulations for the prescriber to consider (Table 1). These pills contain an oestrogen component (ethinyloestradiol, mestranol, oestradiol or its pro-drug oestradiol valerate) and a progestogen (levonorgestrel, norethisterone, gestodene, desogestrel, drospirenone, nomegestrol, dienogest or cyproterone).
Table 1
Combined oral contraceptive pills
Oestrogens
Ethinyloestradiol, a derivative of 17 beta-oestradiol, has been the predominant oestrogen in contraceptive pills because of its high oral bioavailability. Until recently oestradiol had not been used due to its rapid inactivation by the liver, short half-life and the occurrence of breakthrough bleeding when combined with older progestogens. However, formulations that combine oestradiol (1.5 mg) in a micronised form with a newer progestogen (nomegestrol) appear to offer good cycle control.8 Oestradiol has also been combined with a synthetic ester in the form of oestradiol valerate to improve its oral bioavailability and extend its half-life.9 At the doses prescribed in pills, oestradiol may have a more favourable impact on haemostasis and lipid and carbohydrate metabolism (and therefore on cardiovascular risk) when compared with ethinyloestradiol.10 , 11 However, there is insufficient evidence to preferentially prescribe these pills to women with cardiovascular risk factors.12
Progestogens
Pills containing levonorgestrel or norethisterone have been used since the 1960s. The combination of these progestogens with 35 microgram or less of ethinyloestradiol is considered the 'gold standard' in relation to their safety profile. As most of these combinations are listed on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) they are an effective first-line option for women preferring an oral contraceptive.
Newer progestogens such as gestodene and desogestrel are structurally related to progesterone, but have greater specificity for progesterone receptors than the older progestogens. They reduce the potential for androgenic, oestrogenic and glucocorticoid effects. Drospirenone is a spironolactone analogue and has a mild diuretic effect. Cyproterone has anti-androgenic effects which may be beneficial in women with severe acne.
Guiding pill prescription
The guiding principles when considering which pill to prescribe for an individual woman are to choose a formulation that:
-
has the lowest dose of oestrogen and progestogen to provide good cycle control and effective contraception
-
is well tolerated
-
has the best safety profile
-
is affordable
-
offers additional non-contraceptive benefits if desired.
Effective regimens
The first available formulation of the combined oral contraceptive pill contained 50 microgram of ethinyloestradiol for cycle control. However, an association between the pill and venous thromboembolism soon emerged. This was due to the effect of oestrogen on the synthesis of clotting factors.13 To mitigate this risk, and reduce oestrogenic adverse effects, the dose of ethinyloestradiol was reduced to 35 and 30 microgram and more recently 20 microgram without an apparent loss of contraceptive efficacy.3
The pills available in Australia are mostly in 28-day packs with 21 active and 7 inactive pills, to mimic the menstrual cycle. Some formulations contain 24 active and 4 inactive pills (24/4 regimes) which may reduce the chance of contraceptive failure and breakthrough ovulation.4 Extended pill-taking regimens are used by many women to delay or avoid a withdrawal bleed. This is most easily achieved with monophasic regimens in which each active pill contains the same amount of oestrogen and progestogen and the inactive pills are skipped. Typically this is done for three months at a time. Indeed evidence is available to support the safety of continuous use of the contraceptive pill for up to 12 months.14
Another approach is called a 'menstrually signalled' regimen. Women take the pill continuously until they experience four days of vaginal spotting or bleeding after which they have a four-day pill break.
Triphasic pills are commonly prescribed in Australia, but have no evidence-based advantage over monophasic pills in relation to their adverse effect profile or cycle control. A quadriphasic combined oral contraceptive pill that contains oestradiol valerate and desogestrel is formulated with an oestrogen step-down and progestogen step-up sequence.15
The pill is a user-dependent method. Its failure rate therefore differs between 'perfect use' (0.3% annually) by women who take it consistently and correctly and 'typical use' (9% annually) when the pill is used inconsistently or incorrectly.16
Safety and tolerability
Long-term cohort studies show that, compared to non-users of the combined oral contraceptive pill, users have lower rates of death from any cause. They also have significantly lower rates of death from cancer, cardiovascular disease and other diseases.17
Women may experience a range of adverse effects and managing these can be challenging. Table 2 outlines some common adverse effects and strategies that may improve the symptoms should the woman wish to continue with the pill.
Table 2
Managing common adverse effects associated with the combined oral contraceptive pill
Although trying another oral formulation can be helpful, sometimes a change to another form of contraception may be appropriate. This includes a progestogen-only method, such as the contraceptive implant or levonorgestrel intrauterine system, or the non-hormonal copper intrauterine device. These long-acting reversible contraceptive methods are much more effective at preventing unintended pregnancy compared to the pill. They should be discussed with all women requesting contraception, particularly those who cannot take the pill because of adverse effects or identified risk factors or who find it difficult to remember to take the pill daily.
The combined oral contraceptive pill is not recommended during lactation as it may affect breast milk volume.
Venous thromboembolism
There is a risk of venous thromboembolism associated with the combined hormonal contraception, but the risk is much less than that during pregnancy and the immediate postpartum period. Non-users of hormonal contraception have a baseline risk for venous thromboembolism of around 20 per 100 000 woman-years. Current research points to a three-fold increased risk of venous thromboembolism for women using a combined pill over baseline (Table 3).19 , 20
Table 3
Risk of venous thromboembolism19 , 20
Women should be informed of the risk of venous thromboembolism with combined oral contraceptive pills and be aware of the signs. The factors that influence the risk include age, smoking, body mass index, immobilisation, and a personal or family history of thromboembolism or thrombogenic mutations. These factors need to be assessed when considering the safety of the combined oral contraceptive pill. If a woman has a significant risk factor for venous thromboembolism, she is not suitable for any combined hormonal method. Progestogen-only methods are safer for women with risk factors for venous thromboembolism.
The risk of venous thromboembolism appears to vary with oestrogen dose and progestogen type. Pills containing 50 microgram ethinyloestradiol have the highest risk. Compared with pills containing levonorgestrel, those with desogestrel, gestodene, cyproterone acetate and drospirenone may have a higher risk, although the evidence is conflicting.21 - 23
Arterial disease
Combined oral contraceptive pills are associated with an increase in the risk of myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke. While the odds ratio for these events is around 1.7 (compared to non-users), the absolute risk is very low and depending on age lies between 2 and 20 per million women.24 - 26
Women with significant risk factors for arterial disease such as a personal history of arterial disease, obesity, smoking (if over 35 years old), migraine with aura, diabetes with vascular complications or uncontrolled hypertension should not use any combined hormonal method.27
Affordability
Only the pills containing levonorgestrel and norethisterone are listed on the PBS (Table 1). The out-of-pocket expense for a four-month subsidised supply is approximately $20 compared to up to $120 or more for the newer non-PBS-listed pills.
Non-contraceptive benefits
There is not a great deal of evidence for the benefit of one pill type over another. Although the newer combined oral contraceptives have been marketed on their non-contraceptive benefits, it is important to understand which claims are well substantiated.
Acne and hirsutism
Most women with acne and hirsutism find that their skin improves when they take the combined oral contraceptive pill. This is in part because of a rise in sex hormone binding globulin. Pills containing cyproterone acetate, drospirenone, gestodene or desogestrel are often recommended, but the evidence for a benefit over levonorgestrel-containing pills is limited.
The pills containing cyproterone acetate and ethinyloestradiol appear to improve acne (judged by inflammatory lesions and global assessments) better than those containing levonorgestrel.28 Studies comparing pills containing cyproterone acetate with pills containing drospirenone, gestodene or desogestrel have had conflicting results.29 Women with hirsutism may benefit from pills containing one of the anti-androgenic progestogens, including cyproterone acetate or drospirenone, which have been found to result in improvements in clinical hirsutism scores.30
Heavy menstrual bleeding
All combined contraceptive pills can reduce the duration and heaviness of menstrual blood loss. Extending the days women take active pills while reducing or eliminating inactive pills can be useful for heavy menstrual bleeding.
The oestradiol valerate with dienogest pill has a quadriphasic regimen which reduces menstrual blood loss through its effect on the endometrium. It has an indication for the management of heavy menstrual bleeding. This pill appears to be more effective at reducing the number of days of bleeding and the amount of blood loss when compared to combinations of ethinyloestradiol and levonorgestrel.10 , 31 , 32
Premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Menstrual-related symptoms are commonly reported, but a proportion of women will experience more severe cyclic symptoms, known as premenstrual syndrome. A further subset of women will experience severe dysphoric symptoms, which have been labelled as premenstrual dysphoric disorder.
Combined oral contraceptives, by regulating hormonal fluctuations, improve the physical symptoms of menstruation such as breast discomfort and primary dysmenorrhoea, but there is little evidence on their effect on mood and behavioural symptoms.33 The exception is the pill containing drospirenone 3 mg plus ethinyloestradiol 20 microgram, which may be more effective in treating severe premenstrual symptoms. Compared to placebo, it has been found to reduce impairment in productivity, social activities and relationships.34 , 35
Conclusion
Contraceptive counselling should involve the provision of evidence-based information on the safety, efficacy, advantages and disadvantages of all methods of contraception. This enables women to make choices based on their personal preferences and medical suitability.
All combined oral contraceptive pills in Australia have high efficacy provided they are taken regularly. There is little evidence for superior non-contraceptive benefits of the newer pills. The pills containing levonorgestrel or norethisterone in combination with ethinyloestradiol at doses equal to or below 35 microgram are considered first-line due to their possible lower risk of venous thromboembolism and their PBS listing. Other pills can be used if adverse effects develop, however 50 microgram pills are not recommended due to the risk of venous thromboembolism.
CPD for pharmacists
This article has a Continuing Professional Development activity for pharmacists.
Footnotes
Conflict of interest: Mary Stewart is employed by Family Planning NSW which conducts clinical trials sponsored by pharmaceutical companies. Family Planning NSW receives fees from MSD for contraceptive implant training and sponsorship from Bayer Healthcare for intrauterine device training sessions.
Kirsten Black is a trainer on the implant insertion program supported by MSD. She is a consultant on an international advisory board for Bayer Healthcare and has received individual support to attend a conference as a presenter.
References
1. Mansour D, Inki P, Gemzell-Danielsson K. Efficacy of contraceptive methods: A review of the literature. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2010;15:4-16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
2. Rosenberg MJ, Meyers A, Roy V. Efficacy, cycle control, and side effects of low- and lower-dose oral contraceptives: a randomized trial of 20 micrograms and 35 micrograms estrogen preparations. Contraception 1999;60:321-9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
3. Gallo MF, Nanda K, Grimes DA, Lopez LM, Schulz KF. 20 µg versus >20 µg estrogen combined oral contraceptives for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;(1):CD003989. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
4. Klipping C, Duijkers I, Trummer D, Marr J. Suppression of ovarian activity with a drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive in a 24/4 regimen [Erratum in: Contraception 2008;78:350]. Contraception 2008;78:16-25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Christin-Maitre S, Serfaty D, Chabbert-Buffet N, Ochsenbein E, Chassard D, Thomas JL. Comparison of a 24-day and a 21-day pill regimen for the novel combined oral contraceptive, nomegestrol acetate and 17β-estradiol (NOMAC/E2): a double-blind, randomized study. Hum Reprod 2011;26:1338-47. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. Dinger J, Minh TD, Buttmann N, Bardenheuer K. Effectiveness of oral contraceptive pills in a large U.S. cohort comparing progestogen and regimen. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:33-40. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. Richters J, Grulich AE, de Visser RO, Smith AM, Rissel CE. Sex in Australia: contraceptive practices among a representative sample of women. Aust N Z J Public Health 2003;27:210-6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Westhoff C, Kaunitz AM, Korver T, Sommer W, Bahamondes L, Darney P, et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of a monophasic oral contraceptive containing nomegestrol acetate and 17β-estradiol: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2012;119:989-99. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9. Fraser IS, Jensen J, Schaefers M, Mellinger U, Parke S, Serrani M. Normalization of blood loss in women with heavy menstrual bleeding treated with an oral contraceptive containing estradiol valerate/dienogest. Contraception 2012;86:96-101. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Fruzzetti F, Trémollieres F, Bitzer J. An overview of the development of combined oral contraceptives containing estradiol: focus on estradiol valerate/dienogest. Gynecol Endocrinol 2012;28:400-8. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Wiegratz I, Lee JH, Kutschera E, Winkler UH, Kuhl H. Effect of four oral contraceptives on hemostatic parameters. Contraception 2004;70:97-106. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
12. Raps M, Rosendaal F, Ballieux B, Rosing J, Thomassen S, Helmerhorst F, et al. Resistance to APC and SHBG levels during use of a four-phasic oral contraceptive containing dienogest and estradiol valerate: a randomized controlled trial. J Thromb Haemost 2013;11:855-61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
13. Kalman SM. Effects of oral contraceptives. Annu Rev Pharmacol 1969;9:363-78. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14. Edelman AB, Gallo MF, Jensen JT, Nichols MD, Schulz KF, Grimes DA. Continuous or extended cycle vs. cyclic use of combined oral contraceptives for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005;(3):CD004695. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
15. Borgelt LM, Martell CW. Estradiol valerate/dienogest: a novel combined oral contraceptive. Clin Ther 2012;34:37-55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Hannaford PC, Iversen L, Macfarlane TV, Elliott AM, Angus V, Lee AJ. Mortality among contraceptive pill users: cohort evidence from Royal College of General Practitioners' Oral Contraception Study. BMJ 2010;340:c927. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Macìas G, Merki-Feld GS, Parke S, Mellinger U, Serrani M. Effects of a combined oral contraceptive containing oestradiol valerate/dienogest on hormone withdrawal-associated symptoms: results from the multicentre, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled HARMONY II study. J Obstet Gynaecol 2013;33:591-6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
19. Risk of venous thromboembolism in users of non-oral contraceptives. Statement from the Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare. London: Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists; 2012. www.fsrh.org/pdfs/CEUstatementVTEandCHC.pdf [cited 2015 Jan 7]
20. The FSRH statement in response to the Combined Pill Communication from the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). London: Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists; 2014. www.fsrh.org/pdfs/FacultyStatementCombinedPill.pdf [cited 2015 Jan 7]
21. ESHRE Capri Workshop Group . Venous thromboembolism in women: a specific reproductive health risk. Hum Reprod Update 2013;19:471-82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Dinger J, Bardenheuer K, Heinemann K. Cardiovascular and general safety of a 24-day regimen of drospirenone-containing combined oral contraceptives: final results from the International Active Surveillance Study of Women Taking Oral Contraceptives. Contraception 2014;89:253-63. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Farley TM, Meirik O, Collins J. Cardiovascular disease and combined oral contraceptives: reviewing the evidence and balancing the risks. Hum Reprod Update 1999;5:721-35. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Plu-Bureau G, Hugon-Rodin J, Maitrot-Mantelet L, Canonico M. Hormonal contraceptives and arterial disease: an epidemiological update. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;27:35-45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Gillum LA, Mamidipudi SK, Johnston SC. Ischemic stroke risk with oral contraceptives: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2000;284:72-8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. UK medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare. London: Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists; 2009. www.fsrh.org/pdfs/UKMEC2009.pdf [cited 2015 Jan 7]
28. Carlborg L. Cyproterone acetate versus levonorgestrel combined with ethinyl estradiol in the treatment of acne. Results of a multicenter study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1986;134:29-32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Arowojolu AO, Gallo MF, Lopez LM, Grimes DA. Combined oral contraceptive pills for treatment of acne. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;CD004425. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Batukan C, Muderris II, Ozcelik B, Ozturk A. Comparison of two oral contraceptives containing either drospirenone or cyproterone acetate in the treatment of hirsutism. Gynecol Endocrinol 2007;23:38-44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Ahrendt HJ, Makalová D, Parke S, Mellinger U, Mansour D. Bleeding pattern and cycle control with an estradiol-based oral contraceptive: a seven-cycle, randomized comparative trial of estradiol valerate/dienogest and ethinyl estradiol/levonorgestrel. Contraception 2009;80:436-44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32. Jensen JT, Parke S, Mellinger U, Machlitt A, Fraser IS. Effective treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding with estradiol valerate and dienogest: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:777-87. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Freeman EW, Halbreich U, Grubb GS, Rapkin AJ, Skouby SO, Smith L, et al. An overview of four studies of a continuous oral contraceptive (levonorgestrel 90 mcg/ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg) on premenstrual dysphoric disorder and premenstrual syndrome. Contraception 2012;85:437-45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. Lopez LM, Kaptein AA, Helmerhorst FM. Oral contraceptives containing drospirenone for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;2:CD006586. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Freeman EW. Therapeutic management of premenstrual syndrome. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010;11:2879-89. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Articles from Australian Prescriber are provided here courtesy of NPS MedicineWise
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4654044/
0 Response to "Best Combination Birth Control for Continuous"
Post a Comment